Indonesia

Mula Malurung Copperplate, Kediri, Indonesia

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India, also known as Bharat, is a Union of States. As India has a name Bharat from it’s historical background, Nusantara is an equivalent in Indonesia. Nusantara is the name of Indonesian Archipelago or Malay Peninsula.

Indonesians, with diversified cultures and dialects, promise a unified region in the name of Nusantara. From where this word came into usage? That’s what we will see today.

Gajah Mada is a popular prime minister of Majapahit kingdom lived in late 13th and early 14th century. He took a oath, not to give up until uniting ‘Nusantara’ aka the archipelago, during the ceremony of his appointment. It is recorded in Pararaton, the Javanese literature. It is believed to happen in 1336 AD.

The oath goes like this –

Lamun huwus lost the archipelago of amukti palapa, seagrass defeat of the Desert, Seram ring, Tanjung Pura, Ring Haru, Ring Pahang, Dompo, ring Bali, Sunda, Palembang, Tumasik, saman isukti palapa.

I understood that the translation is somewhat equivalent to this –

If I have united Nusantara, I will break my fast. If I have conquered Gurun, Seram, Tanjung Pura, Haru, Pahang, Dompo, Bali, Sunda, Palembang, Tumasik, only then will I break my fast.

Does Tumasik refer to Singapore? Should be. He listed several territories he vowed to conquer before he would ‘amukti palapa‘ (break his fast or enjoy rest). Tumasik was one of the places mentioned in this ambitious oath, representing the island that would later become modern-day Singapore.

But the archeological evidences predates the coining of the word Nusantara. It should be first coined by King Kertanagara in Mula Malurung inscription dated 1255 AD.

To understand this we need to see the successive kings of Singasari of Tumapel, the Javanese Hindu-Buddhist kingdom located in east Java between 1222 and 1292. The list of Kings names them – Tunggul Ametung (overthrown) > Ken Angrok / Ken Arok (assassinated) > Anusapati >Wisnuwardhana > Kertanagara.

The fifth king Kertenagara, based in Kediri, located near the Brantas River in the province of East Java, positioned himself as a combined embodiment of Siva and Buddha. Both Hinduism and Buddhism flourished in Java at that time. In a way, I see his positioning as a way to unify the followers of both religion.

I have a reason to believe so. During later years 1365 AD (1287 Saka year), Mpu Prapanca, authored Desawarnana (also known as Nagarakretagama), under King Hayam Wuruk, registers the competency of religions gaining traction.

During his journey to Darbaru monastery, people on the way raise concerns to Prapanca over people started worshiping Parameswara instead of Buddha. So the kingdom, known for its support to both religion, should have a way to nurture both followers.

But all these lineage existed as Javanese poetry/literature. There was no artifact found to convince the modern historians, until suitable evidences were discovered. One of the significant discovery is existence of the Kingdom is the Mula Malurung Inscription, dated 1255 AD (or 1177 Saka).

The inscription was in the form of a copper plate issued by King Kertanegara, who at that time was still a young king. It was issued to legalize Malurung Village and Mula Village. The gift of the village is offered to one Pranaraja, who is the loyal and diligent employee of Kediri Kingdom. As ordered by his father Wisnuwardana aka Seminingrat, his son Kertanagara carried it out.

The inscription contains the first recorded use of the term “Nusantara”, showcasing Kertanagara’s vision of a vast, interconnected kingdom beyond Java.

As dreamed, Kertanagara formed an alliance with Champa, another dominant state in Southeast Asia, indicating his interest in extending influence beyond immediate borders. During his reign, he subjected Bali to vassalage likely in 1284 AD (1206 Saka), gained control of the Melayu Kingdom in eastern Sumatra, and possibly established hegemony over the Strait of Malacc. These actions demonstrate the practical implementation of his expansionist vision.

It is considered as an evidence of Kertanegara’s vision to unite maritime kingdoms as a defense against the expanding Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China.

The new capital of Indonesia, which was conceived before Covid pandemic period is named as Nusantara to reflect Indonesian nationalistic pride. I am still searching for the right image of this copper plate. I do not have a verified one. Hence this post goes without any images.

I am just learning about Javanese history. There are high chances of misrepresentation or misunderstanding. Hence, I would be making corrects to this text, as and when I found one.

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Mahishasura Mardini of India and Southeast Asia

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Before the advent of cave temples, gods took shelters in structures made of brick, bamboo, or similar materials. These structures were vulnerable to time and eventually vanished.

To overcome this, excavation of cave temples started.

Mandagapattu is recognized as one of the earliest cave temples in Tamil Nadu, built by Pallava king Mahendravarman I in the early 7th century. Mahishasura Mardini cave of Mamallapuram was also mentioned often when we discussed about similar early structure. It is dated back to late 7th century during the reign of Pallava Narasimha Varman.

Mahishasura Mardini Cave, Mamallapuram

Mahishasura Mardini, Mamallapuram

Upon visiting, I stood in awe of the life-sized bas-relief of Mahishasura Mardini, considered one of the finest examples of Pallava art. The bas-relief depicts Goddess Durga fiercely battling with eight arms, wielding a sword, bow, and arrow, as she forces Mahishasura into retreat.

The bas-relief also depicts her attendants, including female warriors and gana-s (dwarfs) in action. Notably, one servant is shown holding an umbrella over the goddess’s head.

Vietnam: Po Nagar Temple

Mahishasura Mardini, Po Nagar Temple | Picture (c) Linda De Volder

Mahishasura mardini is widely depicted in southeast Asia as well. We talked about 7th century caves. Around the same time or later, we have a sample from Vietnam – Po Nagar Temple.

The goddess of this temple is believed to be worshiped for agricultural prosperity. She is linked with Bhagavati. But there is a doorway which represents goddess Durga with four hands, dancing on top of a buffallo, holding a chakra, lotus and trident. The face and crown resembles Chamba artistry. Yet it has the same concept.

Indonesia: Prambanan Temple

In Indonesia, Mahishasura Mardini is depicted in the 9th-century Prambanan Temple complex, showcasing the influence of Hindu mythology on Javanese art.

Durga Mahishasuramardini aka Loro Jonggrang, Prambanan, Central Java, Indonesia.
Picture (c) rarebooksocietyofindia.org

Cambodia: Sambor Prei Kuk

Sambor Prei Kuk is an important archaeological site having over 100 brick temples from the pre-Angkorian period, primarily dedicated to Hindu deities. The site is renowned for its early Khmer architecture and art.

Durga Mahishasuramardini, Sambor Prei Kuk, Khmer, 1st half of the 7th century
National Museum of Cambodia | Picture (c) art-and-archaeology.com

Durga story is perceived as the triumph of good over evil. There are several Mahisha-s roam around freely in Tamil Nadu right now. Just as Mahishasura threatened harmony, modern societal issues like drug abuse disrupt our communities, and we hope for a similar triumph of good over evil.

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Prajnaparamita of Java

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I wrote about an elegant Nataraja bronze from South India in my previous post. Let’s talk about another artifact from Eastern Java today.

The discovery

By 1818, during the era of European colonization that gripped Southeast Asia, Java was under Dutch colonial rule. There was growing interest in Europe in the archaeological and cultural heritage of their colonies. Officers like Stamford Raffles and Willem Stutterheim made journeys through Java and documented their findings.

Much before Stamford Raffles (why I mention him is because he is a venerated British colonial administrator of the Straits Settlements!), D. Monnereau, a Dutch East Indies official, was likely on an official trip or exploratory mission in the Malang area of Eastern Java.

Within the ruins of Cungkup Putri near the Singhasari temple, he identified (or perhaps looted?) the treasure called Prajnaparamita statue.

Buddhist Goddess and her Javanese connection

Prajnaparamita is considered the Goddess of the Perfection of Wisdom in Mahayana Buddhism. She is worshipped as the mother of all Buddhas. Some say this sculpture is a depiction of the first queen of Singhasari—Ken Dedes (also called Dyah Ayu Sri Maharatu Mahadewi or Nareswari). Ken Dedes herself has a captivating story behind her, but that is not the focus of this post. I will write about it another day.

Based on my readings, this is the Buddhist Goddess Prajnaparamita, but it might have been sculpted with resemblances to Ken Dedes. A few suggest this sculpture might have been erected where Ken Dedes was buried. Others write that it may depict Queen Gayatri, wife of the first king of Majapahit. However, this idea is not widely said due to the place it was found.

(c) the sculptor and wikipedia

Javanese art

This Buddhist mother Goddess was sitting in padmasana, on a padma peetam on top of a minimally decorated square platform. Her face is striking us, with a serene expression with downcast gaze. Her hair is arranged into an decorated crown (jata-makuta).

She is adorned with rich jewelry with beautifully carved necklaces, ear rings that matches with her face. A string of pearl wraps gracefully around her body. A lotus creeper with flower is intertwined in her left arm, holding Prajnaparamita sutra.

We need to talk about the fine-carved details of her Batik Sarong which was skillfully rendered. It provides a look of a sensuous drape of real cloth, depicting the goddess as a queen.

This 126 cm tall statue was made from pale rose volcanic andesite stone and is believed to date back to the 13th century. It is one of the finest sculptures representing Hindu-Buddhist Javanese art forms.

Why don’t you meet her in Google Arts and Culture.

Dutch took it

Later, this treasure was shipped to the Netherlands and displayed at the Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde in Leiden.

The Netherlands, which exerted enormous effort to maintain its colonial rule in Indonesia, later faced protests from Indonesia and international pressure. In 1978, they returned this sculpture to Indonesia as a “gift.” 🙂 This act improved relations between Indonesia and the Netherlands.

Of course, this Javanese mother taught her Javanese children to forgive their colonial rulers.

Reading recommendation –

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