While preparing for museum tours, I learned that kings from both India and Southeast Asia made donations to religious institutions of each other. I researched more and came to know about a valuable artifact – The Devapaladeva’s copperplate inscription.
Hiranand Shastri, the Indian historian and epigraphist, mentioned that he found this copper plate during his exploration of Nalanda University in 1921 in Monastery B (Wiki says Monastery 1). Despite the campus was destroyed heavily, this was not affected much. He looks to be happy to find this copper plate intact. With the help of Archaeological chemist, he was able to read the characters.
He is fascinated by this discovery, as it talks about kings of other countries, which made this copper palate of International value.
Devapaladeva, a king of the Pala dynasty, issued this copper plate inscription granting permission to build a monastery at the request of the King of Suvarṇadvīpa, conveyed through a messenger. It also talks about the purpose of the offering in detail.
Suwarnadvipa or Suvarṇadvīpais the island – south and central Sumatra in particular.
The southeast Asian Srivijayan king is mentioned as King Balaputradeva. His lineage and his relatives were also mentioned.
His mother was Tārā, daughter of King Dharmasetu of the lunar race. She was the consort of mighty king who was the son of YavaBhumi (yava is Java – remember the famous Yavanarani novel from Sandilyan!). The name of the father of Palaputradeva is not given at all but the name of the grandfather is said to have been something like Śrī-vira-vairi-mathana meaning the illustrious destroyer of heroic foes.
He strongly wrote that the Yavabhumi and the Suvarṇadvīpa are evidently identical with the Yavadvīpa and the Suvarṇadvīpa islands spoken of in Sanskrit works like the Ramayana or the Kathāsaritsāgara and are unquestionably the modern Java and Sumatra.
The Kathāsaritsāgara is a famous 11th-century collection of Indian legends and folk tales as retold in Sanskrit by the Shaivite Somadeva from Kashmir.
Hirananda Shastri, referencing various sources, concludes that Yavadvipa refers to Java proper, while Suvarṇadvīpa corresponds to Sumatra.
With other artifacts, he mentions that Srivijaya ruled Java and Sumatra from 7 to 10th century.
The historical evidence suggests that cultural and economic connections between India and Southeast Asian countries were more extensive in the past than in recent centuries. The decline of these relationships after the 14th century CE marks a notable shift in regional dynamics. This change in international relations and India’s global influence over time presents an interesting area for further historical research and analysis.
Recently I joined an nparks tour of Fort Canning Hill. During my Singapore Heritage training last year, I learned about the jewelry excavated from this site, formerly known as Bukit Larangan.
In the British colonial period, construction of a reservoir began in 1927 and finished in 1929 atop the hill, an area now closed to the public. In 1928, workers made a significant archaeological discovery: a treasure of 11 gold objects, including an exquisite Javanese-style gold armlet.
Picture source: wikipedia
This 14th-century armlet features the face of a kala (kirti-mukha or yali), a demon face from Hindu mythology. This motif, common feature on Javanese temples, was believed to offer protection. Please see my post on this motive to know more. The armlet’s intricate design includes skillfully crafted chains and clasps allowing for easy wear and removal.
The discovery suggests that Singapore (then Temasek) might be connected with 14th century Java, possibly belonging to royalty from the Kingdom of Singapura. While talking about Temasek and Javanese, I need to mention about Gaja Mada’s vow for a nusantara which annex Temasek, to show how connected these islands were.
Descriptive picture to show armlets | Generated by Gemini AI
This armlet is displayed at National Museum of Singapore. I blame myself for not visiting it yet!
This is a compelling evidence of medieval cultural exchanges between India and southeast Asia, show casing extensive trade networks that facilitated religious and artistic influences across the region.
Java had several small villages. During earlier periods, Indians traders believed the cities in Indonesian archipelago were made of Silver and Gold. This piece of world is called in swarnabhoomi in Sanskrit in India. So when the monsoon starts, they board on ships to reach the islands. They realize what they believed was not fact, yet they do their trade – mainly spices, precious metals, aromatics – and go back to India with several travel baggage.
Those who want more valuable spices stayed back to continue their exploration. They were accompanied by Brahmins who shared stories of the Hindu trinity and Buddhist enlightenment in various villages. Over time, these group of villages developed into power centers, eventually giving rise to the kingdoms of Srivijaya and Sailendra.
Candi Plaosan | Picture : Wikipedia
Sailendra-s controlled central Java where as Srivijaya-s dominated Sumatra. Both of them had trade and cultural relationship. Sailendras formed a powerful Buddhist kingdom. Its rulers were known for their patronage of Buddhism and the construction of numerous temples including Buddhist temple complex at Borobudur and Hindu temples at Prambanan.
The bodhisattva Manjushri, Candi Plaosan | Picture researchgate.net
One of the sculptures – belongs to Sailendra period, from their capital Central Java – is the focus of today’s post – The Bodhisattva Manjushri. He is a significant figure in Mahayana Buddhism. He is one of the four great Bodhisattva-s in Chinese Buddhism – Avalokiteshvara (Compassion), Manjushri (Wisdom), Samantabhadra (conduct) and Maitreya (future enlightenment).
The specific sculptor of this piece remains unknown. It is likely attributed to the Sailendra rulers who were prominent patrons of Buddhist art and architecture during the 9th century. The presence of Manjusri statues in Central Java such as Candi Sewu, suggests a strong reverence.
The sculpture embodies the cultural and religious influences that spread gradually through the interactions of Indian traders, sailors, and monks, who brought Hindu and Buddhist ideas to the region, blending these with local Javanese elements.
Though just a few kilometers from my native place, I haven’t visited Kudumiyanmalai (Kuṭumiyāmalai / कुडुमियामलै) in a long time. It is a common failing, I think, we often overlook the value of the things close by and readily available.
Kudumiyamalai: A historical gem and a treasure of sculptures
Sikanatha temple, Kudumiyamalai | Pandian Ramaiah, 23 April 2007
Yet, Kudumiyamalai boasts a rick history, with Jain beds on its western side of the hillock believed to date back to 2nd century.
Similar to other natural caverns of Jains, the one here offers a breathtaking panoramic view of the surrounding landscape for several kilometers. Writer Jeyamohan believes that our minds will open upon seeing the wide vision of nature. The River Vellar and its banks are particularly picturesque from this vantage point.
One of the most memorable aspects of my village life during power cuts was the collective experience. We’d all emerge from our homes and instinctively glance towards the hilltop. If the light atop the hill remained dark, a sense of shared relaxation would settle in. At least, we were all in the same boat! It’s a little ironic that despite the decades that have passed since my birth, power cuts still occasionally disrupt life in my village.
On the eastern foothills lies a cave temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva. Near by, a structural temple, Sikakirisvara Temple, houses another Shiva shrine. The exact time of construction for this temple remains unknown. However M V Kiran, my ex-colleague who documented this place along with my ex-Boss, noted that most early Chola inscriptions are found in near by Melakkovil (another shine near by) and second prakaram. This suggests that the main shrine might have been remodeled during later periods. Nayaka too involved in development of this temple with beautifully sculpted pillars with intricate carvings.
Two of these sculptures, Rathi and Manmadan, are the focus of this post.
Rathi and Manmadan: A story of Love and Loss
Belief in Rathi and Manmadan, the Hindu god of love, extends back to Vedic period. The story of Kama (Manmadan)’s destruction in Shiva Purana is well-known. When Indra sought Manmadan’s help to awaken Lord Shiva from his medidation, Manmadan’s arrow of love angered Shiva.
Shiva opened his third eye and destroyed Manmadan. Though later revived, Manmadan was condemned to leave heaven and reside in the hears of all men in earth. Following her husband, Rathi too descended to earthly realm, dwelling within the heards of women.
Sculptures depicting Rathi and Manmadan are found throughout Tamil Nadu, but the one in Kudumiyamalai is particularly notable.
Rathi devi, Kudumiyamalai | Pandian Ramaiah, 23 April 2007Kama / Manmada, Kudumiyamalai | Pandian Ramaiah, 23 April 2007
The damaged state of these sculptures is truly saddening. Imagine their beauty, if they were fully intact!
“What shall I do? Where can I go? What is it that the gods have done in making my husband a victim thus? They have called him here and destroyed him.” –Chapter 19 – Kama’s destruction by Siva
This lament of Rathi devi, upon death of Manmadan, echoes my own sorrow at the sight of these damaged sculptures.
Artist Silpy’s drawings offer a glimpse of their potential splendor.
Rathi of Kudumiyanmalai drawn by Artist SilpyManmadan in kudumiyanmalai, drawn by Artist Silpy
I am particularly fond of this Manmadan sculpture. He is depicted with a distinctly masculine physique and mustache, a feature that resembles Nayaka style.
The Javanese Connection: Wayang Kulit
I am fascrinated by the connection to Javanese culture, Wayang Kulit, a traditional shadow puppetry art form originating from Indonesia, especially Java and Bali, often draws themes from Indian epics and Purana-s. The story of Shiva and Manmadan is depicted in this puppet show – KAMAJAYA-KAMARATIH.
In Javanese puppetry, Batara Kamajaya and his wife, Batara Kamaratih are symbols of a harmonious couple. Both are handsome and beautiful and have the duty as the god of love in the puppet world. Known to be very harmonious, loving each other, and loyal to their partners. There is never a story of a dispute between the two.
It is said that one day, Batara Guru (Parameswara or Shiva) was meditating and suddenly heaven was shocked by an attack by a giant army sent by Prabu Nilarudraka which overwhelmed all the gods. The situation became increasingly critical, the gods then followed Batara Guru to wake him up from his hermitage. However, all efforts failed. Batara Guru remained steadfast in his meditation.
Batara Kamajaya then took the initiative to wake Batara Guru up using the Pancawisaya Arrow. If this arrow hits someone, it will create a feeling of love and arouse lust. The arrow was released and hit Batara Guru, immediately his meditation was cancelled and he woke up in a state of anger. From his third eye, a blue light appeared which immediately hit Batara Kamajaya and burned his body.
Knowing the death of Kamajaya, Batari Kamaratih asked to be killed by Batara Guru too so that she could follow her husband. Batara Guru, who was overcome with anger, then revived Batara Kamajaya using Tirta Amerta. However, because he had made a mistake, Batara Kamajaya was then sent to reside in the souls of men in the world. Meanwhile, Batari Kamaratih also came down and resided in the souls of every woman.
The two gods are tasked with uniting the souls of men and women into a pair of lovers or husband and wife who are equipped with love, affection, and harmonious relationships.
The story in Javanese puppet show resonates deeply. Batara Kamajaya and Batara Kamaratih embody a harmonious couple, fulfilling their duty as gods of love.
I am amazing to consider the interconnections of these cultures across vast distances. Kudumiyamalai in Tamil Nadu and Javanese shadow puppetry tradition – both reflecting the timeless story of Rathi and Manmadan.
